Language, Education and Development in Africa

Pair and Group Work in TESOL/TEFL

2008-05-23T03:52:00.000-07:00

TESOL/TEFL: Disadvantages in pair or group work

1) The openness and apparent relinquishment of ‘control’, which characterize constructivist situations that incorporate active and experiential learning in pairs or groups, introduce levels of complexity and challenge that the teacher needs to take seriously. ‘Student-focused’ does not imply that students dictate or exert authority in a way that undermines learning objectives.
2) Groups and pairs move the focus of attention. In a horseshoe arrangement or a circle, the trajectory of interaction is between teacher and individual students and between the teacher and the class. In pair and group work, the trajectory is between participants with the teacher as a monitor and commentator. Pairs and groups are therefore most suitable for situations following the presentation and written practice phases. They are less satisfactory for individualized activity.
3) Inappropriately constituted groups may reinforce undesirable power relations. While mixing stronger and weaker students has advantages, this can also lead to situations where strong students dominate and the weaker student is either subjugated or relieved of his/her responsibility for learning. Similarly, groups comprising only strong students and only weaker students may lead to obvious differences in competence and proficiency: accomplished learners could become bored and the less-accomplished embarrassed, sensitive and discouraged.
4) Linguistically and/or culturally homogenous groups may encourage the formation of factions and to practices, such as the use of the L1, that inhibit acquisition of the target language. Further, although teachers are not custodians of cultural heterogeneity, the electricity and ‘mind-expansion’ that can come about as a consequence of exposure to ‘the other’ would be diminished. Accordingly, the composition of pairs and groups should aim at creating a wide range of interactions over the period of tuition.
5) If group formation is static, undesirable alliances and allegiances may be entrenched. This could increase the potential for disruption and decrease opportunities for effective learning.
6) Groups and pairs may pose noise and discipline problems. Personally, I find it strange that noise and healthy, competitive interactions should be considered disruptive. Nevertheless, within a school this concern may arise. A reasonable measure of control is necessary.
7) Where groups are assigned, the potential for personal likes and dislikes can threaten the teacher’s authority and the class’s harmony. Both in South Africa and overseas, I have encountered racial, cultural, religious, ethic and personal prejudice. There is no place for these in any teaching environment (unless specifically mandated by the institution, for example, gender separation). In making up groups, the teacher needs to be firm and sensitive to undercurrents of tension. It would be foolhardy persistently to link incompatible personalities. Similarly, always endorsing personal feelings is unworkable and unethical.
8) Certain tasks (for example, individual reading, embedding new knowledge in written practice, quiet time for reflection and research) are clearly suited to work outside groups and pairs. Here groupings would be counter-productive.
9) Some individuals find group and pair work intrusive, particularly if they feel that the burden for completion or excellence is on them. Adjusting groupings and allowing for individual and collective learning should be part of the continuum of the individual lesson and of the course as a whole.
10) Without a clear purpose or objective, forming a group may be counterproductive. Groupings are particularly relevant to oral communication and to the productive stage. A group for its own sake is meaningless.
11) Pair and group work can make it difficult to monitor and assess individual performance. The teacher needs to ensure that individualized evaluative criteria are not jettisoned.
12) Where group activities require access to resources, measures to ensure that all members are equally capable of performing the assigned tasks are needed. For instance, assigning group work that requires digital connectivity when some members do not have access or only have limited access is awkward and unfair.

Motivation and TESOL or EFL Learning

2008-05-23T01:06:00.000-07:00

Motivation

Numerous studies in a wide variety of fields have noted that motivation is one of the driving factors in enabling successful learning to take place. Clearly, Harmer is correct in asserting the primacy of motivation in English language learning. Nevertheless, as he goes on to concede motivation is complex and success in learning a language cannot be attributed solely to it. (Harmer, 2006: 51-54; Harmer, 2007, 20-22).

Gardner states that ‘The term motivation is used in the area of language learning with many definitions, processes, and measures proposed’. He continues to emphasize that recently in SLL (Second Language Learning), the focus has shifted from psychological determinants to ‘process-orientated conceptualizations, including, but not limited to curiosity, self-determination, causal attributions, and goal setting’ (2006: 348). This claim is extended by Yiying Sheng who cites a range of contemporary language researchers. Most significant, perhaps, is the quote she provides from Noam Chomsky: ‘The truth of the matter is that about 99% of teaching is making students feel interested in the material’ (2005, 17). The notion of ‘process’, which arises in Gardner and is implicit in the continuity of ‘good’ teaching over time in Chomsky, is critical. Rather than regarding motivation as an inherent, fixed and stable characteristic of the aspirant student, we are able to think it as variable, malleable and subject to external influences and inputs. This is important for the TESOL classroom as it indicates that teachers may create or enhance motivation through a variety of factors. In other words, a student with poor initial motivation could be inspired to be a very motivated language learner.

Harmer distinguishes between ‘extrinsic’ and ‘intrinsic’ motivation where the former is based of the need to be successful in an exam (for example, IELTS or TOEFL), the promise of a salary increase, or the possibility of new work and leisure opportunities; and the latter is initiated from within the individual (2006:51). Of course, motivation is derived simultaneously from both sources. Gardner, citing Dörnyei, indicates that ‘motivation concerns the direction and magnitude of behavior, and that it is “responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it”’ (2006: 349).

Several researchers have categorized ‘motivated’ language learners in terms of several sub-traits. These include ‘positive task orientation’, ‘ego-involvement’, ‘need for achievement’, ‘high aspirations’, ‘goal orientation’, ‘perseverance’ and ‘tolerance of ambiguity’. To illustrate two of these: someone who is motivated by ‘ego’ would find it important to succeed in study in order to maintain or promote his or her own positive self-image; similarly, tolerating ‘ambiguity’ implies that the language learner is able to put up with situations where there is a lack of understanding or temporary confusion because he or she knows that understanding will come later. Of course, most students will display some or all of these characteristics to differing extents. Moreover, at times certain characteristics may be more dominant than others. They would not need to be present to the same intensity over any extended period. Further, the traits are interrelated in highly individualized ways. To personalize this: I am driven by the need to achieve. At the same time, my ‘ego’ makes it difficult for me to accept failure and so I am likely to work hard enough to be reasonably successful. But, I am wary of ambiguity. If I do not grasp something relatively quickly I tend to become stressed and to consider withdrawing. My potential for perseverance is not as high as it should be. For this reason, I avoid playing ball games like tennis, where learning to serve was a particular stumbling block which I could not overcome swiftly enough to preserve my self-image and self-esteem.

Gardner and others point to the close association between attitude and motivation. This relationship is interdependent with each affecting the other. Students who approach English from a society which values learning the language or from a personal perspective that sees English as a panacea for their aspirations are attitudinally likely to be motivated. To the contrary, if the target language is thought to have limited value, public attitudes are unlikely to be positive or motivation strong. It is important to stress that attitudes cannot be legislated. The South African Constitution protects English and ten other official languages. Of these, nine are ‘black’ African languages and one is of South African derivation. Even though English is spoken by a small minority of the population it is highly valued. Accordingly, attitudes to English are far more positive than attitudes to other constitutionally-protected languages. These attitudes are transmitted, consciously or unconsciously, by parents, peers, educators, the media, popular culture and employers. It is not surprising that most people are eager to learn English. At the same time, no amount of state promotion by the Pan South African Language Board (PANSALB) can resurrect learning (or learning in) African languages for their own sake. Even African language speakers seem disinclined to acquire advanced capabilities. On the other hand, should African language competence become linked to strong economic and social benefits, attitudes to them could shift and the motivation to learn them amongst a wide range of speakers may be enhanced.

An important issue that has to be considered is the causal link between motivation and achievement. Being highly motivated is not a guarantee that an individual will succeed in learning a target language. At the same time, though, researchers have argued that being highly motivated increases the probability of achievement. It also follows that successful students have a significantly greater probability of exhibiting high levels of motivation. This view removes simplistic causation.

Our TESOL course and almost all writing on language teaching point to the importance of the teaching and learning environment. This suggests that, whatever the initial attitude or level of motivation, the teacher can play a significant role in either maintaining or destroying both. Highly motivated students who are taught unsuitable material by someone who is indifferent and in a setting that is uninspiring almost certainly will loose their eagerness to learn – either entirely or in the present circumstances. The corollary is that students who are not particularly motivated, for whatever reason, may be jumpstarted into being active language-learning participants by good teaching in an appropriately staged programme implemented within an attractive environment.

There is no easy formula for creating favourable conditions to enhance motivation. Personally, I would suggest that the teacher’s subject mastery and his or her ability to ‘read’ and manage students’ learning experiences are important. The latter, in particular, connotes respect, clarity, empathy, listening, direction, adaptability and responsiveness. To refine these broad attributes we could argue that students will be motivated if:
• The teacher and the lessons are well-prepared;
• The subject content is appropriate and purposeful;
• The students understand the rationale for the learning activities;
• Activities are presented clearly and according to best-practice;
• The lessons and activities have variety to maintain interest, but are not so cluttered with special effects that they become a distracting sideshow;
• Students are recognized as individuals;
• Students are treated equally, fairly and consistently;
• The teacher and the students maintain a mutually respectful relationship, without being overly stuffy or formal;
• The students feel that the teacher cares about them and their progress;
• There are measurable, attainable goals to which students can aspire and against which their efforts can be measured;
• The classroom and classroom activities have an element of fun and of healthy competition about them;
• The materials are authentic and are perceived as being relevant to the real world and to students’ needs;
• The teacher encourages students to be autonomous or self-sufficient by empowering them to learn both in class and on their own;
• Students have enough time to talk, to practice what they have learnt, and to ask questions;
• The learning environment is supportive;
• The teacher is available to students (within reason);
• Feedback is useful, swift, and non-judgmental.

Of course, the list above may suggest super-human ability and dedication. Moreover, not all elements will have the same impact on all students. No matter what we as teachers do, there may be students whom we can’t reach. My Junior High School Afrikaans teacher, for example, did not have a chance. Much later in life, I felt cheated as a language learner when our homework was not checked (ever) and increasingly disinclined to devote too much time to it. Other students may have been relieved. I also find the thought of being ‘interesting’ as a fifty-year-old to twenty-something students a bit intimidating: could I ever really inhabit their world? At the same time, I think that the dictum ‘be true to yourself’ is good advice. Further, I believe that ‘practice makes perfect’. If we are not by nature excellent language teachers we can learn to become ones. More than that, I have learnt that a passion for one’s subject and a genuine desire to share that passion with someone else is strongly motivating.

Sources

Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E., 2006. Bilingualism, Multilingualism, and Second Language Learning. New York: Elsevier.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2006. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. How to teach English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Sheng, Yiying. 2005. ‘Motivation: A Central Factor in Foreign Language Learning,’ Sino-US English Teaching 2.2 (Series 14). February: 17-21.

Factors Affecting Language Learning

2008-05-23T01:03:00.000-07:00

Factors that block or prevent language learning

Aside from obvious physical impediments such as poor vision or deafness, a wide range of factors are claimed to block or to prevent language learning. These include attributes peculiar to the student: for example, age, aptitude, attitude and motivation. But, language learning is also impacted by external factors like context, culture, mother-tongue (L1) interference, teacher and teaching style, resources, time and others. In this task, I will look at both internal and external ‘blocks’.

As Jeremy Harmer notes and as we have probably experienced, young children have an amazing facility at acquiring their first language and other languages (2007: 15). By contrast, adults appear to experience more difficulty when learning languages. Age is popularly seen as the greatest impediment to language learning. This phenomenon is attributed to a number of highly contentious reasons and bears closer scrutiny.

In 1967 Eric Lenneberg popularized the idea that there is a ‘critical period’ during which children acquire language easily. This period is a function of brain physiology and is sometimes termed ‘brain plasticity’. Studies in brain-damaged subjects and feral children appear to support the biological hypothesis. More recent studies, though, are less sympathetic suggesting that even though some aspects of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) are affected by age, others are exempt. Even Krashen, the doyenne of SLA thinking, has challenged the length of time that cerebral plasticity may allow for enhanced acquisition or learning.

My own view is that children are usually less inhibited than adults and are more willing to mimic, improvise, experiment in and use a new language. Moreover, without strongly embedded L1 syntactic structures, young children are probably more amenable to actions and activities that promote productive language skills. Adults, in comparison, may be more self-conscious. Their degree of linguistic fossilization in term of their L1 is greater since they have had long exposure in and engagement with receptive and productive language use. Many will also have developed analytical or meta-grammatical L1 knowledge which may prevent them from learning L2 (or L3) structures. Furthermore, adults are more likely to have strong ideas about appropriate teaching and learning styles. These, together with other attitudes and behaviours, may serve as ‘affective’ filters in second or foreign language learning. Here, too, neurological and neurobiological evidence has been cited by researchers as suggesting physiological determinants.

Arguably, ‘affective filters’ such as attitude, personality, concern for grammar, anxiety, the need for correctness, and motivation are a greater consideration in adults learning language than in children. Thus research has shown that extroverts learn languages more easily than introverts. Similarly, shy or reserved students are more likely to avoid contact with first language speakers of the target language than outgoing, sociable students . Logic dictates that immersion in authentic language situations and a willingness to use or to practise the target language will impact on learning and fluency. I would concede this point, but argue that the onus is on the trainer or teacher to create an environment in which effective language learning can take place. Whatever the circumstances, teaching should be appropriate to the age and developmental stage of the learner. Adults should not be patronized and children or adolescents should be taught in accordance with their respective life-phases.

Although theorists disagree, motivation – to my mind – is a powerful affective factor. Having had the experience of being forced to learn a language (Afrikaans) and wanting to learn a language (Portuguese), I can attest that the latter was more pleasurable and that as a learner my response was more receptive. At the same time, motivation as a factor impacting on language learning is a contested terrain. Various studies disagree on the relative importance of integrative or instrumental and intrinsic or extrinsic motivational factors. It could be argued that the teacher is (or needs to be) able to create the right circumstances for learning to take place even if the student is not particularly motivated. In terms of research, learners studying a language for integrative and internal reasons did not necessarily perform better that those who were motivated externally and functionally. Furthermore, MacIntyre (1988) shows that highly motivated learners often remain unwilling to communicate. This is bad news for acolytes of binary categorizations, but a salutary reminder that baldly assuming rigidly defined factors prevent language learning is dangerous.

The final ‘block’ that needs to be considered when focusing on the learner’s inherent traits is ability or aptitude. Here, work done by Noam Chomsky and Dell Hymes has played a major role. Accordingly, Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction argues that ‘performance’ (speaking and writing) is not necessarily an index of competence. From this perspective, competence is modeled on grammatical ‘correctness’ and is thus problematic. This posits a separation between language knowledge (which may be good) and communicative ability (which may be less accomplished). According to Chomsky, competence or language knowledge is a better index of language ability than performance. To take the argument one step forward, if we were using aptitude or innate ability as a factor influencing language learning, we would determine the individual’s language ability on how closely the user’s utterances meet the linguistic standard (for example, Standard British English) rather than according to the effectiveness of the communicative event. To counter the syntactic bias of Chomsky’s argument, other theorists have emphasized notions of communicative competence and language proficiency. In most TESOL situations, communicative competence is primary. The point is, though, that our measure of what constitutes good language learning will influence the criteria we identify as blocks to it.

Although I am inclined to follow Harmer’s advocacy of Multiple Intelligence theory (2006: 46) for establishing aptitude or not, I would caution that just because someone may be musically or mathematically intelligent he or she is not prevented from developing significant language abilities (L1, L2, L3 and others). Indeed, as language is primary to all knowledge, we probably have to recognize that although mathematics and the arts (alongside other intelligences) have their own ‘language-like’ structures, these are linked to, or supported by, conventional linguistics abilities – that is the ability to function in English, Chinese, Ghanaian or whatever the case may be. When language aptitude is not present – as in severe autism – non-linguistic intelligences are indicators of the idiot savant. Moreover, I would argue that so-called ‘intelligences’ are strongly connected to intrinsic and extrinsic determinants including physical and physiological characteristics, contextual and environmental factors, and socio-psychological, cultural and religious orientations. Deciding what makes someone ‘good at’ something is very complex.

While TESOL classrooms and practices are ideally learner-centred, it is the teacher-as-facilitator who is the integral component in any learning situation. Language teachers need to be aware of, and to overcome, the ‘blocks’ to language learning, whatever their source. Accordingly, alongside inherent factors I have listed a number of external ones even though, for example, the distinction between L1 interference as an internal or external factor is debatable. Nevertheless, matters aligned to culture, language origin, the learning and living context, teacher training, and pedagogy, amongst others, should be considered when talking about ‘blocks’ that may prevent language learning.

While it is dangerous to generalize or to indulge in stereotyping, the learner’s society, culture, religion, location, economic status, work circumstances and family relationships are potential impediments. Certainly, mother-tongue (L1) may be a major factor blocking or assisting learning. Students who already speak a Latinate (Italian, Spanish, etc) or Indo-Germanic (German, Swedish, etc) language are likely to find it easier to learn English than students who come from Semitic or ‘Oriental’ backgrounds. Not only is there some overlap in the sound-systems (phonology) of cognate languages, but orthographic, syntactic and semantic continuities will also be encountered. The TESOL class’s experience in learning Mandarin points to this. Yaseen and Zeenat, who both speak Arabic, found Mandarin Chinese sounds and tones far less daunting than their classmates, who are predominantly L1 speakers of English and L2 speakers of Latinate or classical languages. Of course, familiarity in one language does not imply that learning a related language will ever be easy. Carmen’s victory in the Mandarin challenge attests to this.

Interpersonal and inter-generational relationships also vary in intimacy, distance, and convention between cultural, social and religious groups. More significantly, behaviours based on these ‘belief’ systems and practices are likely to have been entrenched by prior educational experiences. Students accustomed to authoritarian; knowledge-based instruction may find that interactive and communicative pedagogies pose a significant challenge to language learning. Indeed, the block may be so substantial that it not only prevents learning, but also irreparably damages trust and the student-teacher relationship. Home and economic circumstances, exposure to media (for instance, television, music and magazines) in the target language, and the time available for learning may also inhibit or promote language learning. While the optimal environment may be total immersion, this might not be feasible.

The solution, to my mind, is not to capitulate to the source culture, prevailing circumstances, and/or learning style. The language teacher and school should provide suitable opportunities for students to encounter and practice the language that they wish to learn. In addition, the teacher needs gradually to accustom students to new pedagogic strategies without compromising the recipients’ belief systems or cultural traditions. (Indeed, changing the student from a recipient into a participant may be a crucial step in ensuring the efficacy of learning.) Cultural and religious disrespect is never justified by the claim that tradition prevents learning. Instead, the teacher has to create a safe, caring, supportive and comfortable environment in the classroom in order to counteract personal and social ‘affective’ blocks. This means adjusting to the needs of individual learners and groups. It also implies ongoing cultural sensitivity. I have not found any convincing evidence for inherent or culturally-determined language competence or incompetence.

A teaching ethos that respects the student, provides scaffolded-learning opportunities, and aspires to best practice both from the perspective of the teacher and on the part of the student’s performance is required. This ethos should not be idealistic or disproportionate to the student’s requirements. Effective language teaching is teaching that meets the outcomes that have been identified for the individual, level or course. Effective learning is learning that is aligned to clearly articulated, measurable outcomes. To blur the distinction between need and method or outcome and practice is to introduce the severest form of language learning blockage. In other words, if functional receptive competence is the desired outcome, theoretical, literary and communicative mastery – especially if flamboyantly pursued – constitutes a teacher-induced block. Similarly, endless drills and parrot-like recitations will not suffice if communicative competence and reasonable, general linguistic proficiency are required.

To conclude, then, matching teaching and purpose are likely to overcome most of the blocks that have been so extensively theorized and debated. While this implies due cognizance of the factors that may prevent language learning it emphasizes praxis over theory. In my view, good language learners, like good teachers, are made, not born.

Sources

Asher, James J., Ramiro, Garcia. 1969. ‘The Optimal Age to Learn a Foreign Language,’ The Modern Language Journal, 53.5. May: 334-351.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2006. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2007. How to teach English. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.

Krashen, S. 1982. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Permagon.

Lenneburg, Eric. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

MacIntyre, P.D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., and Noels, K.A. 1998. Conceptualizing Willingness to communicate in an L2: A Situational Model of L2 Confidence and Affiliation,’ The Modern Language Journal 82.4: 545-562.

Tucker, Richard G. 1976. ‘Affective, Cognitive and Social Factors in Second Language Acquisition,’ Canadian Modern Language Review 32.3. February: 214-226.

Widdowson, H.G. 1998. ‘Context, Community and Authentic Language,’ TESOL Quarterly 32.4. Winter: 705-716.

2007-11-11T11:48:00.000-08:00

THE REPUBLIC OF ANGOLA

EDUCATION AND PEACE

RECONSTRUCTION OF EDUCATION

TEACHER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

THROUGH

DISTANCE EDUCATION IN AFRICA

MINISTERIAL REPORT

Prof. M.M. Mboya

Advisor: Education and Training

NEPAD Secretariat

P.O. Box 1234

Halfway House

1685

Johannesburg

South Africa

Tel: +2711 313 3485

Fax: +2711 313 3450

Email: mzobanzim@nepad.org

TABLE OF CONTENTS

	Executive Summary …………………………………………………………………….	viii
	Acronyms ……………………………………………………………………………………	Ix
1.	Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………	1
2.	A Brief Socio-historical Context ……………………………………………………	2
3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5	The Current Situation ………………………………………………………………… General ……………………………………………………………………………………… Primary and Secondary Schooling ……………………………………………… Tertiary Education ……………………………………………………………………… Teacher Training and Development …………………………………………… Observations ………………………………………………………………………………	3 3 4 5 5 7
4.	Approaches Already Adopted ………………………………………………………	8
4.1	Policy options for Reconstructing and Developing Education ………..	8
4.2	The New Reform in Education ……………………………………………………..	9
4.3	Curriculum transformation ………………………………………………………….	9
4.4	Rehabilitation of facilities ……………………………………………………………	9
4.5	Teacher training …………………………………………………………………………	10
5.	Urgent Needs ……………………………………………………………………………..	10
5.1	National Budget Allocation to Education ………………………………………	10
5.2	Improvement of Infrastructure …………………………………………………….	11
5.3	Development of Human Resources ……………………………………………..	11
5.4	Teaching Materials ……………………………………………………………………..	11
5.5	A National Monitoring and Evaluation Framework ………………………..	12
5.6	Better Planning, Co-ordination and Administration of Programmes and Project …………………………………………………………………………………	12
5.7	Adult Education and Literacy Programmes …………………………………..	12
5.8	Summary of the Current Situation and the Government’s Response	12
6.	Language and Technology …………………………………………………………..	13
7.	NEPAD’s Response to the Education Situation in Angola ………………	14
7.1	Specific Recommendations …………………………………………………………	14
7.2	Steps to be undertaken by NEPAD ………………………………………………	15
8.	The Role of Open and Distance Learning in Angola ………………………	15
9. 9.1	A Broad Strategy for Teacher Training and Development in Angola Purpose ……………………………………………………………………………………	17 17
10.	Phase One Of Teacher Training and Development through ODL in Angola ………………………………………………………………………………………..	18
10.1 10.2	Specific Themes for Phase One ………………………………………………….. Terms of Reference for Phase One ………………………………………………	18 19
11.	Phase Two: Mass Implementation of the New Teacher Training And Development Programmes in Angola …………………………………….	20
11.1 11.2	Specific Themes for Phase Two ………………………………………………….. Terms of Reference for Phase Two ………………………………………………	20 20
12.	A Proposal for an Initial Intervention by UNISA ……………………………..	21
12.1	National NQF Articulation and Capacity Building: Activities …………	21
12.2	National NQF, Articulation and Capacity Building: Deliverables …….	22
12.3	National Accreditation, Planning and Capacity building: Activities	22
12.4	National Accreditation, Planning and Capacity Building: Deliverables ………………………………………………………………………………	22
12.5	National Certification Processes and Materials Development: Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………	23
12.6	National Certification Processes and Materials Development: Deliverables ……………………………………………………………………………	23
12.7	National Harmonisation of NQF, Assessment and Evaluation: Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………	23
12.8	National Professionalism: Activities ……………………………………………	24
12.9	National Professionalism: Deliverables ……………………………………….	24
12.10	National Finalisation and Reporting: Activities …………………………….	24
12.11	National Finalisation and Reporting: Deliverables ……………………….	24
12.12	Timeframe ………………………………………………………………………………….	24
13. 13.1 13.2 13.3	Specific Intervention: Lead Teacher Training Institutions …………….. Preliminary Factors ……………………………………………………………………. Basic Resources ………………………………………………………………………… Training of Staff ………………………………………………………………………….	25 25 25 25
13.4	The South African Experience: The National Professional Diploma in Education (NPDE) – An Example of Teacher Development ………..	26
13.5 13.6	Further Stages of Development ………………………………………………….. Other Factors ……………………………………………………………………………..	27 27
14.	Factors Influencing Implementation …………………………………………….	30
15. 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4	The Next Steps for the Project to Proceed …………………………………… Governmental Commitment ……………………………………………………….. Ministerial Commitment …………………………………………………………….. Institutional Commitment …………………………………………………………… Joint Commitments …………………………………………………………………….	30 30 31 31 32

	References ………………………………………………………………………………..	33

	Tabular Representation of a Proposed Global Strategy for the Implementation of Education for All in Angola between 2005 and 2015 ………………………………………………………………………………………….	35

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report and proposal represents a considered and detailed response to the educational situation in the Republic of Angola by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD).
It focuses primarily on teaching training and development at system, national, provincial, regional and institutional level from the perspective of policy and practical intervention.
The report and proposal recognizes the difficulties which confront education in Angola, particularly in terms of realizing the Education for All (EFA) Goals established at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000.
NEPAD advocates the extensive use of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in collaboration with established ODL providers from other African countries as the key to addressing educational needs, generally, and teacher training and development, specifically, in Angola.
It suggests that any implementation of ODL needs to be part of a coherent and comprehensive strategy that deals with other related areas of concern, including policy, legislation, finance, infrastructure, and socio-economic development.
Nevertheless, NEPAD recognizes that immediate action is required and therefore proposes that various phases of implementation occur simultaneously.
Accordingly, pre-implementation issues should be addressed at the same time as activities take place to build capacity and to increase learner access to education in Angola.
With reference to teacher training and development, NEPAD proposes two phases of intervention: an initial phase in which capacity is developed in selected key teacher training institutions and amongst a small group of key personnel; a second phase which will encompass mass implementation across Angola.
Both phases depend on the availability of adequate funding and on the full support and cooperation of the Government of Angola. Moreover, both phases need to be assessed in terms of task-based management strategies and subject to ongoing monitoring and research.
The entire project must be demand-generated and not supplier driven: NEPAD can only act within the actual, stated demands and requirements of educational authorities and the Government of Angola. It does not seek to impose external solutions, priorities or timeframes on the country.
Every aspect of following report and proposal, therefore, is offered for the consideration of the relevant authorities in Angola. All components should be viewed as recommendations and thus subject to negotiation and modification.
It is anticipated that following receipt of this report and proposal, the Ministry of Education and the Government of Angola will communicate their own views, intentions and proposals to NEPAD directly and formally.

ACRONYMS

ABET Adult Basic Education and Training

ACCORD African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes

CD-ROM Compact Disc – Read-Only Memory

COL Commonwealth of Learning

DFID [United Kingdom] Department for International Development

EFA Education for All

ESSP Education Sector Support Programme

EU European Union

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome

ICT Information and Communication Technologies

IFESH International Foundation for Education and Self-Help

I-PRSP Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

JICA Japan International Co-operation Agency

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

NEPAD New Partnership for Africa's Development

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NOUN National Open University of Nigeria

ODL Open and Distance Learning

PARPA Action Plan for the Reduction of Absolute Poverty

PES Economic and Social Plan

PMPTR Minimal Programme for Partnership in view of Transition and Relaunch

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

SADC Southern African Development Community

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

UNISA University of South Africa

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USD United States Dollars

2007-11-11T11:37:00.000-08:00

Multilingual? Multicultural? English and the other nine South African languages

Section 6 of the South African Constitution is labelled “Languages”. In part, it reads as follows:

(1) The official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu.

(2) Recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of our people, the state must take practical and positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages.

(3) (a) The national government and provincial governments may use any particular official languages for the purposes of government, taking into account usage, practicality, expense, regional circumstances and the balance of the needs and preferences of the population as a whole or in the province concerned; but the national government and each provincial government must use at least two official languages….

(4) The national government and provincial governments, by legislative and other measures, must regulate and monitor their use of official languages. Without detracting from the provisions of subsection (2), all official languages must enjoy parity of esteem and must be treated equitably.

(5) A Pan South African Language Board established by national legislation must -
(a) promote and create conditions for the development and use
of -
(i) all official languages;
(ii) the Khoi, Nama and San languages; and
(iii) sign language ; and
(b) promote and ensure respect for -
(i) all languages commonly used by communities in South Africa, including German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Portuguese, Tamil, Telegu and Urdu; and
(ii) Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit and other languages used for religious purposes in South Africa.

Ironically, despite the noble intentions of Constitutional protection and the proliferation of institutional and corporate language policies asserting the equality of all South Africa’s languages, local African languages are perceived to be declining both in terms of the extent to which they used by the population and in terms of the status which they enjoy. English is undoubtedly the lingua franca in metropolitan South Africa, perhaps with the exclusion of the Western Cape, and Afrikaans continues to be used extensively throughout much of rural South Africa.

Prior to 1991-1994 (the period of South Africa’s political transition) the government’s divide-and-rule strategy reinforced racial, ethnic and linguistic difference. By emphasising tribal and regional affiliations the government sought to exaggerate the separateness of closely-related ethnic and language groups, while at the same time attempting to deflect the hegemony of English by diverting considerable attention and resources to the artificial growth and promotion of Afrikaans. Indeed the spark which ignited the Soweto ‘riots’ of 1976 – an event that symbolically and tangibly provides concrete evidence of apartheid’s eventual demise – was the imposition of Afrikaans as the medium of instruction in ‘black’ schools.

The reasons for the migration to English in the post-1994 era are not hard to define. South African society is not exempt to the predominance of English as a world-medium of communication – a global lingua franca. Accordingly, English is seen as providing access to education, employment, economic advancement and all the trapping of middle-class society or, increasingly, the benefits enjoyed by the newly empowered black elite. English is also a politically-correct acceptable alternative to South Africa’s other ‘European’ language, namely Afrikaans. By conveniently ignoring the extent to which British colonialism, together with rampant Afrikaner nationalism, was responsible for centuries of dispossession and discrimination, Afrikaans unfairly bears the mark of the ‘language of the oppressor’. The fact that during the all-white 1978 election the Afrikaner nationalist government was returned to power with 78% of the vote and that throughout its period of influence dating from 1948 it enjoyed increasing majorities in every election, suggest that more than a few English-speaking, white South Africans actively supported racial segregation and the incremental implementation of enormously oppressive legislation to quell any threat from the black majority. It is an accepted truth that since the advent of multi-racial democracy it is almost as difficult to find a white South African who voted for the National Party or who supported apartheid as it is to find hen’s teeth. Finally, speaking English is modern and fashionable. It is the medium of international popular youth culture – video games, music, the latest movie on circuit, television, magazines and the paraphernalia of image. Using the language is to associate oneself with cosmopolitan society, to belong to the set, and to disown the ‘othering’ to which Africa and Africans are subjected.

In the face of such formidable opponents and against the tide of popular opinion, the language provisions of the Constitution may appear naïve and impossible to implement. Arguably they remain empty rhetoric as the funding required for the development and promotion of African languages is insufficient or unavailable. The government’s stance may seem hypocritical especially when Departments of African Languages have lost 75% of their student registrations and when the language of parliament and the economy is almost exclusively in English. And when African languages are used in speeches or in television programmes they are accompanied by voice-over translations or subtitles in English; neither of which provide much incentive to English-speaking South Africans to acquire an African language or two.

The language situation is possibly well illustrated by the reaction at Unisa to a recent request directed to tertiary educational institutions by the Norwegian government for funding proposals for the promotion of multilingualism, especially increased access to tertiary education and the provision of language development in African languages. While I was drafting or submission I was confronted by two views – neither of which is clearly representative of a particular racial or linguistic grouping. The one view was that our proposal should focus on improving the proficiency in English amongst historically-disadvantaged (a horrible euphemism) students. Resource-based learning materials should be provided in English and in nine South African languages to supplement or mediate the tuition process. Interestingly, whether language support materials should be developed in Afrikaans was an irresolvable issue. The notion of actually teaching a subject in one, any or all of the African languages was rejected entirely as futile, unachievable, monstrously expensive, and a disservice to students inasmuch as they would be excluded from (or at least inhibited) global economic and communicative opportunities.

The contrary view accepted the importance of English, but insisted on the tuition, at least at first level and in flagship courses, in a representative selection of African languages. The identity of the courses was not articulated expect that they should be high registration courses. Similarly, it was not clear how the university would select languages to be used for tuition. The implication was that tuition should be provided in accordance with demand, which would favour larger languages over those spoken by fewer people. A minority view was that tuition should be offered in all African languages (and in Portuguese) across a wide spread of subjects

The arguments underpinning these positions represent to two poles of language policy in South Africa – an opposition between pragmatism and idealism. The pragmatists have a significant advantage because to a large extent they represent majority opinion. Many speakers of African languages reject the notion of tuition in those languages as unnecessary. Here the notion of ‘mother-tongue’ or ‘home-language’ is taken literally. isiZulu and Tshvenda are languages imparted from parents to their children. They are seen as languages necessary for interpersonal communication, particularly within the family or the community, and not as integral components of education. Children go to school to acquire new knowledge, it is argued, not simply to extend a capacity that they already have.

This position is extremely problematic when applied to the school situation. It is generally accepted that literacy should be establish in the learner’s L1 prior to an attempt to develop and L2 and certainly before L3 acquisition is contemplated. To some extent the validity of this position is recognised by the Ministry and Department of Education. Children are entitled to L1 instruction during primary school grades. On the other hand, the efficacy of this policy is reduced because many parents who can afford to do so send their children to schools in previously white areas, where the medium of instruction is English or Afrikaans, rather than enrolling them in township schools where indigenous languages are used.. The policy also unravels in metropolitan areas. Labour migrancy, rural-urban population movements, and the cultural shift from traditional to market-based economies have blurred the linguistic identities. Thus while KwaZulu Natal remains predominantly isiZulu and Gauteng is often identified with Sesotho, the demographic mix includes large percentages of L1 speakers of other languages. Practically, schools in an area simply may not offer tuition in the learner’s home language.

The argument intensifies when we move into the senior secondary phase and into tertiary education. Here, the case for English draws on a wide range of reasons. Apart from the obvious, the suitability of African languages for high-level applications is depicted as dubious. In broad terms the debate unfolds as follows. African languages lack the vocabulary necessary for a knowledge-based, science and technology-driven society. If African languages are to be used it will be necessary to develop the corpus, prior to producing content. As this content is already available in English, the work and cost involved in Africanisation of the curricula wastes valuable resources, particularly in a ‘developing’ country where other needs are more urgent. It is pointed out that the Nationalist government diverted substantial resources to the development of Afrikaans as a language of higher education and failed, even though similarities between Dutch and Afrikaans theoretically made this task easier. If it was not possible to achieve completion in Afrikaans, how much less likely to succeed will any attempt to grow nine diverse African languages.

A second stab at African languages is the claim that it is incorrect to speak of individual languages as though they are monolithic wholes. Instead, the oral basis and the relatively recent emergence of written forms have led to a lack of standardisation. Instead of thinking of an African language as a single entity we need to conceive of these languages as comprising a number of distinct dialects. Moreover, because written standardisation was due to missionary and political influence, mediated by apartheid language boards, it often reflects a particular rural dialect that may be completely unfamiliar to many actual speakers of the language. As one commentator suggests, in such circumstances the development of all nine African languages would be ‘to undertake a mammoth task of linguistic and social engineering’ which ‘may well have the opposite effect to the multilingual ideal articulated in the constitution.’

These arguments at best may bear elements of truth and at worst may simply be used to justify the continued dominance of English. It is deeply ironic the divergences between standard British and Standard South African English are ignored, as are the considerable differences in dialects of English within the United Kingdom itself. The imposition of a standard for official communication that may differ widely from actual usage is not seen as inherently disadvantageous in English, but surely is when it comes to nine African languages. The glib dismissal of African languages and the easy promotion of English as the obvious choice for academic and official communication also fail to take cognisance of the connections between language and identity. If we accept constructivist and post-structuralist ideas that identity is not real, inherent or unitary, but rather, that it is fragmentary, constructed through meaning making and representation, then the role of language in identity formation and in discourse cannot be ignored. The Ministers of Education of the African Union, meeting last year in Algiers, put the case rather eloquently. Their final communiqué contains the following words:

Languages have complex implications in terms of identity and social integration, both globally and locally, and thus are of strategic importance. They are not only tools of communication, but also, and mainly, systems of perception and thought, mirrors of cultural identity and vectors of its fundamental values. They are an essential constituent of the self-consciousness and identity of individuals and societies, and are the basis for the creation, processing and transmission of knowledge. The capacity of peoples to live in and modify their environment, interact and socialize is heavily dependent on and marked by their language faculty. Thus, marginalization or integration, exclusion or empowerment, poverty or development, are to a certain extent determined by linguistic choices and strategies.

I would like to believe that the Ministers of Education were not merely engaging in politically-correct, populist statements pandering to the an-African myth or to the much vaunted African Renaissance. But even if their words are devoid of practical consequences they do hold value to all people who value Africa’s diversity and the richness of its ancient and modern cultures. Can there really be any question of the worthiness of developing African languages and promoting not only their survival, but their daily use?

But are South Africa’s nine African languages in danger? The evidence is inconclusive. Based on sample proficiency tests amongst first level students it could be argued that English and the other ten South African languages face severe challenges. Across the board, students appear to be functionally illiterate for the purpose of tertiary study irrespective of their home language. While black students are often more efficient readers and writers of their second or third language – English – than of their mother tongue, class and economic circumstances seem to play a greater role in academic preparedness than ethnic or linguistic origin. Thus, white and black students from disadvantaged backgrounds are equally likely to show low proficiency levels.

I have not seen any statistic that shows that fewer people are speaking African languages than in the past. Indeed, it would seem that speakers of African languages exemplify extreme multilingualism. It is not uncommon for black South Africans to speak several languages and understand several more. By contrast, many white South African are functionally unilingual, even though they are exposed to bilingual education. Accordingly, it is the unilingual individual who is most at risk in a multilingual, multicultural society. The ability to speak multiple languages and to code-switch with ease that is the preserve of the majority of the population is a powerful instrument. In this sense, I would argue that the position of South African languages is not nearly as fragile as might appear on the surface. Moreover, the non-English majority have shown remarkable skill in harnessing the power of their colonial inheritance to advance their struggle for social, economic and cultural recognition. Language is an instrument and English can certainly be used instrumentally in ways that undermine, or at least redefine, its hegemonic presence.

In bald terms, the crisis of language in South Africa is based on the extent to which English is used for official purposes, the perception that general standards of proficiency (in English and in other languages) are slipping, and in the tendency to reject African languages particularly in academic contexts. If we examine the assumptions and attitudes which underpin expressions of a crisis, we often encounter the notion of falling standards, of increasing deviation from the norm, and of a lack of understanding – on the part of students – of the conventions of academic discourse. If I was inclined to be controversial, I would suggest that promoters of the crisis exemplify a particularly reactionary and conservative position. Unwilling to allow for a new South African identity or to accept that contemporary Africanness may differ considerably from the traditional forms that are so conveniently packaged at various resorts for tourist consumption, they cling to outdated notions of social, cultural and linguistic stasis. In this respect, changing entrenched notions of acceptable expression and behaviour may be more important than acts of preservation, which are bound to fail. It is only when we are able to shake off the shackles of convention and to have the courage to explore new forms of academic and social discourse that we, as South Africans and Africans, will have achieved our emancipation. In the meantime, I take some consolation of the inefficacy of the Pan South African Language Board and the impotence of innumerable empty language policies. Policing, fencing, legislating, conserving, promoting and developing African languages (and English) as part of the state’s bureaucratic mechanisms would, I think, be entirely inimical to an authentic multilingual, multicultural society.

EFA in Angola: Education for All in Angola

2007-11-11T10:55:00.000-08:00

A Report Written by IM Nsthoe and MK Holloway

1. Introduction
The report which follows is based on research conducted in the Republic of Angola by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), the University of South Africa (UNISA), the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) between 21 February and 4 March 2005. It should be read in the context of previous contact between UNISA and the educational authorities in Angola, including Agostinho Neto University. It must also be seen against the backdrop of NEPAD’s proposals regarding Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in the Training and Development of Teachers and against the Education for All (EFA) goals acceded to at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in 2000.

The views expressed in this document, and the proposal contained therein, are those of UNISA and NEPAD alone. In no way should they be taken as representing the perspective of any other organization.

This document outlines in broad terms a strategy for Teacher Training and Development through ODL in Angola. In doing so, it is highly conscious that the provision, control and policy direction of any educational intervention in Angola is a matter for the government and people of the country. In no way is this document intended to provide a prescription for Angola to follow. Nor is there any intention to dictate the terms and actions which may be required to attend to educational needs in Angola. Rather, the document should be seen as an open and initial offer of mutual cooperation and collaboration between NEPAD, UNISA, other ODL institutions in Africa and the Government of Angola.

In the interests of progress, the document tackles several difficult issues directly and bluntly. The purpose of such plain-speaking is to place on the table, at the outset, our perspective on the current situation in education in Angola and to indicate the steps that we believe will contribute towards the attainment of a new dispensation. No observation or comment implies or apportions blame. Indeed, the entire document has been drafted with the full knowledge the President, the Angolan government and the various Ministries are extremely serious about reconstruction and development. To evade hard truths would be patronizing and misleading. Accordingly, without hesitation we have offered our opinions and suggestions in full recognition that it is the prerogative of Angola to have the final say.

For the purposes of contextualization, and for presentation to possible partners and donors, this document includes background information, an assessment of the current situation and measures being adopted in education and other sectors before continuing to propose a multi-pronged, phased intervention. In detailing the intervention, most attention has been paid to suggestions concerning the next two years. In order to place these suggestions in a wider context and to elaborate on the proposal a speculative and negotiable tabular representation of a complete strategy for the implementation of EFA in Angola from 2005 to 2015 is attached as Appendix One.

At the outset, it must be stressed that NEPAD and its partner educational institutions are only able to intervene and assist in Angola upon receipt of a formal request from the Government of Angola and its respective organs. All interventions must be needs’ driven not supplier generated. The onus is therefore on the Government of Angola and the Ministry of Education to initiate further contact and consultation as they see fit. Moreover, it is important to state that any proposed intervention must be accompanied by visible and tangible commitment from Angola itself. It will not be possible to access donor funds or the goodwill of the international community without evidence that the Government of Angola is willing and able to invest in the future of its people.

2. A Brief Socio-historical Context
The peoples who comprise the population of the national territory of Angola are culturally, linguistically and economically diverse. Historically, they are constituted from an indigenous population that has been augmented by various migrations at different times. Moreover, the traffic in slaves, which commenced about 1481, and the effects of prolonged colonization from 1482-1975, and of Christianity, have provoked influences that continue until now. Thus, in terms of socio-linguistic composition, Angola is a mosaic in which Portuguese is the official language and the primary means of communication, used for commerce, teaching and administration. Local languages and cultures tend to be regionalized. Culturally, socially and politically, the impact of colonization by Portugal is evident and ongoing.

Angola won its independence from Portugal in 1975. Almost immediately, the country was plunged into civil war as the government forces of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) lead by Jose Eduardo Dos Santos clashed with Jonas Savimbi’s National Union for the Total Liberation of Angola (UNITA). Both parties in the conflict received external assistance and UNITA, in particular, was actively and directly supported by the Nationalist Party regime in South Africa and, covertly, by the United States of America.

In 1992 peace seemed imminent when Angola held national elections, but UNITA returned to military action after it was beaten at the polls. It was only with the death of Savimbi in 2002 that the UNITA rebellion ceased and the country began to return to normality under President Dos Santos’s MPLA government. National elections are scheduled for 2006.
Angola’s 27 year civil conflict displaced approximately 4 million people and cost the lives of an estimated 1.5 million. As seriously, the conflict decimated large portions of the country, destroying infrastructure, communications, and civic networks. Economic development and the delivery of social and educational services were severely impeded, to the extent that the continued existence of Angola as a nation was in jeopardy.

Unfortunately, the colonial period which preceded civil conflict cannot be characterized as benign. The educational and economic development of the indigenous people of Angola was severely neglected and the country was exploited for its natural and mineral wealth. Accordingly, at independence, an estimated 83% of the population was illiterate and provision for schooling for the vast majority of the population was hopelessly inadequate.

Today, the Republic of Angola is at a crossroads. The country is particularly rich in natural resources and has vast capacity for development. The country has considerable prospects for a stable and prosperous future. At the same time, it is reaping the negative consequences of its past. Angola finds itself in a position where much of its population is under-educated and ill-prepared to participate in the process of reconstruction and development. Moreover, attempts at addressing urgent social needs are impeded by the size of the country, the dilapidation of its infrastructure, and the plethora of needs in all spheres social and economic life of which have to been addressed simultaneously (CIA, 2005:1-10).

3. The Current Situation
The following section focuses on solely on the current situation in education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. The section is divided into two main sub-sections. The first deals with school education and the second focuses on tertiary education. The objective is to provide a concise overview of the educational situation in Angola. The points contained in this overview are those of the researchers involved. Accordingly, they may differ from those of other parties or of the Angolan government.

3.1 General
Education in Angola is in a stage of transition from the System of Effective Education, approved in 1977 and implemented in 1978, to the New Educational System, approved in 2001 (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education, 2004: 21). Currently, the country is in the Emergency Phase of Educational Reform (2003-2005).[1]

In the Emergency Phase, the new system of education is being introduced in an increasing number of schools. In other schools the previous system is maintained. Under the new Educational System the structure of schooling is divided into 6 subsystems: Early Childhood Education, Basic Education, Adult and Non-formal Education, Teacher Training, Technical and Vocational Education and Higher Education. These comprise 3 teaching levels: Primary, Secondary and Higher Education, which are preceded by Early Childhood Education. Educational reform is based on new curricula for all of the subsystems, at all levels of instruction. Early Childhood Education is the responsibility of the Ministry for Integration and Social Reconstruction (MINARS),[2] while other levels of the Educational System function under the control of the Ministry of Education.

Education in Angola is marked by contrasts. On the one hand, the school system suffers from the absence of an appropriate physical infrastructure, the scarcity of qualified human resources, the lack of learning materials, the state of the curricula, and from problems in administration and management. Similarly, tertiary institutions, long neglected, are gradually re-establishing their presence. All phases of educational provision are affected by poverty.

On the other hand, the government has made considerable progress in terms of educational reform. The six objectives of the Dakar Framework for Action have been contextualized to Angolan national conditions and will be implemented through a national EFA Plan (Angolan Government 2002). The practical implications of this implementation were discussed at the ‘Sensitization and Needs Assessment Training Workshop for Education Planners, Statisticians and Teacher Educators and National Consultation on the Draft Education for All National Plan of Action’ held in Luanda from 19-24 April 2004 and 26 final recommendations were accepted. Moreover, the Ministry of Education has shown considerable enthusiasm and commitment to making the ideals of EFA a reality.

3.2 Primary and Secondary Schooling
Statistics reveal that 2 million Angolan children, or 44%, receive no schooling at all. Of those at school, very few proceed beyond Grade 7. Only 27% of learners entering the school system complete their schooling. For primary schools, Grades 1 to 6, in 2001, the estimated gross enrolment rate[3] was 59,8% and the net enrolment rate[4] 40,0%.[5] The breakdown of the net enrolment rate was 38,6% for girls and 44.9% for boys (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education, 2004: 28).

The educational situation in Angola is grave. Indicators provided at the Conference of Ministers of Education of the African Union (COMEDAF II) held in Algiers from 8-11 April show that, in some respects, educational provision in Angola is similar to that in Burkina Faso, Ethopia, Guinea-Bissau and Madagascar – regions noted for their poverty. Rate of Access in the 6th year of schooling in Angola was 29% in 1999/2000, while Parity Index of Gross Enrolment Ratio was 87%. These indices, respectively, are 27% and 15% below the average for Africa as a whole in 1999/2000. At the same time, Angola expects the growth in pupil numbers (at government primary school level) to increase from 1 727 000 in 2000 to 4 167 599 in 2015. This will require an increase in the number of government school teachers from 66 560 in 2000 to 80 363 in 2015 (African Union, AU/Educ/2(I), 2005:13).

More recent statistics are not yet available, but should be soon as a comprehensive audit of teachers, learners, infrastructure and needs is being conducted. It is unlikely, though, that any major improvement will have been realised in the past few years.[6] Indeed, until poverty, access to education and the accelerated provision of quality schools and teachers are addressed it is unrealistic to suppose that real change can be brought about.

The following points can be extrapolated from the above overview:
· The number of learners excluded from school at primary level is unacceptably high in any context;
· The drop-out rate between primary and secondary school is a matter of grave concern for the future development of Angola;
· Gender imbalances within schools in Angola are contrary to the Millennium Development Goals;
· The number of qualified teachers within the system is far below the critical mass required for sustainable, quality education;
· The number of teachers required to be trained to cope with future needs exceeds the current complement of available teaching personnel by over 100%;
· Massive investment is required in providing access to schooling and in the training of teachers.

3.3 Tertiary Education
Improvements in Teriary Education provision in Angola can be noted. Although Agostihno Neto Univeristy remains the only public university in the country,[7] it is planning to develop existing centres in provinces. It aims to address the country's problems with health, communication, transport (roads and railroads), mining and agriculture, and to contribute to reducing poverty and increasing the quality of life. After a first decade in the colonial time and a dormant period through the war, the university has grown very rapidly over the past three years. Student numbers have risen from 2 000 to 20 000, and courses offered from 36 to 60. Important work is being done by the Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Science near Huambo, the capital of
the province Huambo where violent fighting took place.[8]

At the same time, the university statistics showed an encouraging increase in the numbers of female students. Of the 7715 students of the current academic year, 3008 (39,0%) are women. In the Faculty of Law the percentage of women is 41, and in the Faculty of Medicine it is 47.

3.4 Teacher Training and Development
The reconstruction and development process in Angola, in general, and the envisaged role education should play in this regard, in particular, is dependent on the availability and quality of teachers at all levels of the education system. Accordingly, teacher training and development is crucial. Without significant numbers of suitably qualified teachers, Angola is likely to find itself dependent on outside expertise in many areas of its economy. As a consequence, possibilities for the improvement of basic living conditions for many Angolans will remain unattainable.
Following decolonisation a total of 29 000 unqualified teachers were recruited to provide education within the primary phase. Subsequent attempts to improve education were hampered by the extended civil war. In the aftermath of this war, the Ministry has found it necessary to recruit an additional 19 000 unqualified teachers (or ‘agents’). Such large numbers of unqualified teachers are not conducive to quality education and may account, in part, for the relatively high drop-out rate.

According to government statistics, in 2001 Primary Education in Angola was provided by 51 400 teachers of whom about 40% were female. More than 70% of all primary school teachers did not have any academic qualification, and of these about 37% are female. The provinces with the largest numbers of teachers are Luanda, Benguela and Huila, which total 23 638 teachers. About 61% of these do not possess appropriate qualifications.

In the provinces of Zaire, North Kwanza, Uige, South Kwanza, Kuando Kubango, Huambo, South Luanda, Kunene and Bengo, the percentage of teachers with appropriate qualifications is below 10%. In the remaining provinces, the picture is not very different. Luanda, where teachers with appropriate qualifications reach 62.4%, is an exception.

It should also be noted that entrance requirements to enter the teaching profession and teacher qualifications themselves differ from general norms adopted by countries like South Africa. Primary school teachers are drawn from people who have chosen to specialise in teaching during the second phase of secondary school. Secondary school teachers, theoretically, should have received training at a Teacher Training Institute or University. Accordingly, it must be presumed that even qualified primary school teachers are in possession only of a Grade 12 (or its equivalent), while secondary school teachers would have a Grade 12 and some tertiary training. The quality of training is impossible to assess under current circumstances. Moreover, existing tertiary institutions have an extremely limited capacity to produce new teachers for a growing population. While institutions in Luanda are satisfactorily resourced, the picture in the provinces is less favourable. Outside Luanda and provincial capitals little or no provision is available for initial or continuous teacher training. Existing institutions are over-subscribed and cannot meet the demand.

The following points can be extrapolated from the brief overview of Tertiary Education and Teacher Training and Development given above:
· Tertiary Educational institutions, including Teacher Training Institutions, are being rehabilitated and revitalized;
· The provision of an adequate learning infrastructure, including libraries, books, laboratories and communications systems, is essential;
· The capacity of teacher training institutions needs to be upgraded and extended to deal with the demands inherent in EFA and the MDGs.

3.5 Observations
Education and development are inextricably linked. Without education, social and economic development are impossible. Paradoxically, social and economic development provide the financial capital through which increased investment in education can be provided. Accordingly, even in circumstances such as those that previal in Angola, it is essential that the government places sufficient emphasis on the funding of education, while contending with other competing demands.

In this respect, it must be noted that Angola is a country with large oil and diamond reserves. While utilizing its wealth to the benefit of the population as a whole has been difficult over the past decades, prospects of a more peaceful future demand that a systematic revision of national priorities occurs.

The state budget allocation to education has varied over the last three years. In 2003, education received 6% of the national budget which was increased to 10.7% in 2004. Due to a lack of expenditure, however, the 2005 allocation was reduced to 6%. Both the 2004 and 2005 figures are too low given the urgent need. A further problem is that approximately 90% of the budget for Education is used for salaries and for bursaries to allow Angolans to study at institutions outside the country. Little is left for training teachers or providing books for learners.

Not only are education and development linked, but it is impossible to conceive of education as comprising discrete and separable phases ranging from Early Childhood Development through to Tertiary training. Rather, phases in the educational process must be regarded as an interlinked network or system in which each part is dependent on the other parts. In holsitic terms, it is of dubious efficacy to enhance the quality of tertiary education without giving the necessary attention to secondary and primary education. Although quality education at school level depends largely on an established cohort of well-trained teachers, without adequate primary and secondary education their can be no effective system of tertiary education. Accordingly, it is essential to address the issue of the continuous development of existing teachers, while attending to the urgent demand for large numbers of properly trained new teachers. At the same time, attention needs to be given to the whole education system – including remuneration, development, school rehabilitation, capacity-building, administration, career advancement, inspection and quality assurance – so that teaching per se is an attractive career path for a developing population.

4. Approaches Already Adopted
4.1 Policy options for Reconstructing and Developing Education
The Education for All (EFA) National Plan of Action alongside other initiatives is in the first phase of implementation (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education, 2004: 15). These initiaves include the Poverty Reduction Strategy (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education, 2004:15), with regard to which the Government has prepared an Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (I-PRSP) in 2000-2001 (Hodges, 2002:15).
At the same time, the EFA National Plan of Action, also addresses international challenges embodied in several other documents, which include the Millennium Development Goals and the Dakar Framework for Action (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education 2004 pp.15-16).
The six Dakar objectives have been contextualised to Angolan national conditions and are formulated as follows:
· Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable children.
· Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality.
· Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills.
· Achieving 50% improvement in the levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
· Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls' full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.
· Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education, 2004: 16).

In order to implement these goals, the Policy Options for the reconstruction and development of Angolan education have been identified as follows:
· Reaffirmation of the Strategic Role of Education as a fundamental human need in the reduction of poverty, in the reduction of social bias and as an essential condition for sustainable development;
· Decentralization of the Education System Administration as a need for the institutionalizing of new administration models that guarantee a greater balance and a more active participation of all the educational actors and local communities, favouring the exercise of power at local level, as a dynamic and functional supplement to the regional and central powers, mobilising and affecting the necessary resources;
· Setting up of Partnerships and the Diversification of Educational Offerings as a need to involve many actors (social, political, economic, private organizations, individuals, religious communities and local groups) in accordance with the laws and norms in force; as a need for the recognition of the freedom of choice without ignoring, however, the State's role as a regulator of the dynamization of values around a common project of a diversified unit;
· Solidarity and Delegation as a need for the involvement and mobilization of citizens, institutions and main actors, turning the challenge of Quality Education for All into an individual and collective commitment for much better outputs.

4.2 The New Reform in Education
The new system for Educational Reform was designed by the Ministry of Education, even before the actual end of the conflict. This Quality Education for All is appropriately based on the Dakar Framework for Action, while the MDGs were also taken into account. In a realistic way, stages of implementation were planned, and basic, moderate and normative scenarios were drafted.

4.3 Curriculum transformation
This New Reform is based on a comprehensive curriculum transformation. Outdated parts have been replaced by components and contents that respond to current situations and needs. Preparation for Active Life is built into the new curriculum. Elements such as the following are included: Education for Life and Peace, Life Skills (including those with regard to health, disease prevention, hygiene, and nutrition), technical and professional skills, and a culture of values. These changes are welcome, but further improvements of the curriculum should be considered.

4.4 Rehabilitation of facilities
In a relatively short time, some much-needed facilities have been restored and provided. Damaged buildings are being repaired, destroyed buildings rebuilt, new buildings erected, and extensions added where necessary. Development Workshop, which has a long history as an NGO in Angola, has already reconstructed about 100 schools, through small grants to communities who are willing to co-operate. The Fundo de Apoio Social (FAS, Fund for Social Support) has done good work in this regard over the last ten years. The Schools for Africa programme for the cost-effective construction of schools is about to start (in 2005) in Angola and other countries.[9]

Notwithstanding such progress, the facilities at most schools remain unsatisfactory, even when these schools are in close proxity to Luanda. In provincial and rural areas, the rehabilitation and construction of facilities requires increased impetus.

4.5 Teacher training
Encouraging progress has been made with regard to teacher training. When unqualified ‘educational agents’ had to be utilized as an emergency measure, strong emphasis was placed on the need to acquire and improve qualifications. This was not only meant for the ‘agents’ but also for all teachers, principals and administrators.

With regard to teacher training, various options are available, mostly in Luanda. There are teacher training institutions, and the training project sponsored by Lusophone countries. There are courses offered by the Agostinho Neto University in the capital and in provinces. There are also training programmes presented by NGOs and funded by donors.[10] Statistics from the faculty of Education and other faculties at the Agostinho Neto University showed rapidly growing numbers of students. The figures also provided encouraging information on the approach towards gender equity.

Nevertheless, it is clear that the efforts that have been made are not sufficient to address the backlog. Often the duration and scope of interventions remains to shallow to ensure the necessary improvements. The decentralization of training and the expansion of provision for the continuous training for teachers are urgently required.

5. Urgent Needs
5.1 National Budget Allocation to Education
The state budget allocation to education has varied over the last three years. In 2003, education received 6% of the national budget which was increased to 10.7% in 2004. Due to a lack of expenditure, the 2005 allocation was reduced to 6%. The allocation to education does not prioritize particular sectors within education. Further, a large portion of the education funding is spent on salaries and subsidies for students to attend universities mostly outside of Angola[11]. Various parties, both governmental and non-governmental stressed, that prioritization within the education budget is needed, as well as a national action plan identifying the priority areas and coordinating projects and funding.

5.2 Improvement of Infrastructure
The existing programme of restoring and building schools and providing classroom equipment, water, electricity and adequate sanitation has to continue. This should not only happen in the national capital, but should be extended to as many provincial areas as possible. Especially in the rural areas of the provinces there are urgent needs. The government is expected to invest more in developing and maintaining the social infrastructure and environment of schools. Such development should include the provision of water, electricity and adequate sanitation.

5.3 Development of Human Resources
At the same time a greater investment in the development of human resources is urgently needed. Special capacities are needed to implement the New Reform and thereby to meet the Education for All goals and the MDGs. Enhanced capacity is needed for the education system as a whole, and thus for the human resources at all levels – from teachers and principals to supervisors and directors. This is of particular importance in the provinces.

In 2003, 29 183 teachers were recruited however they were of a low quality. In 2004, 800 teachers were recruited for Luanda only owing to a limited budget. According to the European Commission in Angola is is planned that 28 000 more teachers will be recruited nationally in 2005. This claim has not been confirmed and the extent to which these teachers will be suitably trained and qualified is unknown.
Special emphasis must be placed on the need for the variety of teacher training institutions to improve the planning and coordination of their procedures, and the capacity of their management and training of human resources.

5.4 Teaching Materials
There is a need for developing relevant[12] books and other teaching materials in accordance with the new curriculum. In fact, the implementation of the New Reform is seriously hampered by this lack of material. As far as possible, these materials should be produced locally and should draw on collaborative opportunities between Angola and other African states, especially Mozambique. Adequate provision should be made for supplying and distributing such materials to schools throughout the country.

5.5 A National Monitoring and Evaluation Framework
There is a need for an effective national system of monitoring and evaluating. Such a system could play a crucial role in the implementation of the education reforms, and with regard to issues like gender equity.

5.6 Better Planning, Co-ordination and Administration of Programmes and Projects
At provincial and municipal levels, very little planning seems to be taking place. The best possible coordination is needed for the programmes and projects intended to contribute to the rehabilitation and further development of education. Such coordination can be of particular importance in the case of projects initiated and run by local, national and international organizations and institutions.
At the same time the strengthening of administrative capacities is needed. Angola has to ensure that education reform is monitored by knowledgeable and proactive administators and inspectors.

5.7 Adult Education and Literacy Programmes
After a short-lived experiment with an adult literacy campaign, a high demand was manifested. National levels of literacy are estimated at 42%. However, in some regions, amongst women, the literacy rate is lower than 30%. Even on a national basis, more men (56%) are literate than women (28%). Such figures are cause for grave concern. Greater attention should therefore be given to adult education and to the development of literacy programmes for children and adults. Such programmes can be of great value to children and young people who have been prevented by circumstances from entering school when they were in the appropriate age range.

5.8 Summary of the Current Situation and the Government’s Response
Education in Angola is in a state of transition;
· The physical infrastructure at primary, secondary and tertiary level is in need of rehabilitation, although some progress has been made;
· The numbers of learners out of school or excluded from schooling is extremely high. This number will grow unless concerted efforts are made to address poverty and issues of access;
· The number of learners that can be accommodated by tertiary institutions is below Angola’s actual needs. It is disproportionately low given the total population;
· Teachers are often poorly trained and inadequately compensated;
· Teaching is seldom monitored or managed effectively;
· School curricula and text books need to be revised on an ongoing basis and produced in large quantities;
· Current provision for pre-service or continuous teacher training and development is inadequate;
· The development of EFA in Angola needs to be tackled holistically and should involve all internal stakeholders and the international community.

6. Language and Technology
Issues of language and ICT emerge strongly in Angola. Portuguese is the lingua franca. English and French are options in Grades 8, 9 and 10. The Angolan government has also identified 6 indigenous African languages that will be introduced as subjects, rather than as media of instruction, at primary school.

Proficiency in Portuguese is uneven. The language is widely used in metropolitan areas and their surroundings. Portuguese is less-widely used and understood in rural areas, especially where the country borders its neighbours. In these regions indigenous languages are more prevalent. A proportion of the population are returning refugees; these people may have little or no proficiency in Portuguese or in Angola’s indigenous languages.

English as a subject has only been introduced into the school system relatively recently. Previously, French was the second or additional language offered. Consequently, despite demand for competence in English, particularly within the formal economy, the capacity to speak and to teach English remains restricted. The Angolan Ministry of Education has concluded agreements with commercial providers of educational materials in Cape Town to assist in the development of English learning materials. Such a strategy is economically unsustainable in the long term. Collaborative agreements should be reached for the sustainable development of materials and capacity within Angola. In this respect, UNISA’s Intensive English for Foreign Language Speakers and Teaching English as a Foreign Language programmes are particularly suitable.

In a country where travel and communication infrastructures have to be reconstructed and where large numbers of people require access to education, ICTs are particularly alluring. At the same time, various realties need to be confronted. These include the provision of suitable buildings, electric power, satellite or cellular telephone receiving equipment, fixed line networks and the technical capacity to maintain these beyond installation. ICTs are feasible on a limited scale in lead teacher training institutions and in dedicated centres in provincial capitals. Nevertheless, the extensive use of lower levels of technology, including radio, audio cassette and video, is achievable. Moreover, time, energy and money should be invested in establishing a network of training and learning centres throughout the country for continuous teacher training and for community development projects.

7. NEPAD’S Response to the Education Situation in Angola
NEPAD’s response to the educational situation in Angola is informed by the organization’s charter, its ongoing involvement in various Ministerial meetings and committees, its engagement with international partners, and by research undertaken by itself and other agencies. In particular, the points which follow are informed by a baseline study conducted by NEPAD, UNISA and NOUN from 21 February to 4 March 2005.

While NEPAD recognizes the debilitating impact of protracted conflict, it is of the opinion that urgent measures need to be taken in the following areas:

· To improve the physical infrastructure of the entire education system in order to create a conducive environment for teaching and learning;
· To provide adequate equipment and teaching and learning technologies;
· To use ODL to reach a greater percentage of the population;
· To address the lack of materials and to provide sufficient books and library resources for lecturers and students;
· To improve human capacity and to develop human resources in management, technical expertise and in teaching;
· To plan and co-ordinate educational provision at all levels, from pre-primary to tertiary, on a national basis in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All (EFA) protocols;
· To make available adequate government finance for tertiary education and teacher training;
· To raise the level of qualifications for teacher trainers,
· To improve the status of the teacher population and to improve their conditions of service;
· To provide support to the management of higher education institutions;
· To provide continuous training for teachers on a sustained and national basis.

7.1 Specific Recommendations
7.1.1 That the planning and implementation of a system of ODL should commence as soon as possible:
· Strategies to assist in the development of a system of ODL for Higher Education and teacher training that will reach beyond Luanda and the provincial capitals into rural areas should be devised.
· The Ministry of Education should collaborate and enter into partnerships with NEPAD and other agencies in the development of new ODL materials for lecturers, teachers and learners.
· The relevant Ministries of government, NEPAD and its partners, and various donor agencies should participate in the coordination of strategies for the implementation of educational reform and reconstruction to ensure maximum coverage and minimum duplication, particularly through the use of ODL.
· An implementation committee and monitoring team should be instituted to oversee and direct the formulation of educational policy, its implementation and the use of ODL.
· Immediate and concerted efforts should be made in training teachers and developing the foundation of education, that is pre-primary and primary education, through ODL.

7.1.2 In the interim, NEPAD suggests that the following measures could be implemented in order to alleviate, temporarily, some existing problems:
· The co-operative and collaborative provision of short term programmes and projects to improve teaching and learning in lead tertiary institutions, particularly those involved with the training of teachers;
· Specific, targeted short term interventions in key areas such as institutional management, library and resource management, and the training of ICT technicians;
· Short-term staff exchanges and collaboration in the area of materials development;
· Assistance in the development of integrated syllabuses that incorporate academic development strategies for learners and that include the provision of adequate, low-cost language and learning support systems;
· Consultations on ODL.

7.2 Steps to be undertaken by NEPAD
Following the agreement of the Government of Angola and its relevant Ministries, NEPAD is prepared to:

· Devise detailed budgets and cost analyses for submission to governments and potential donor agencies;
· Pursue dialogue with the government of the Republic of Angola and with other governments and donors in order to ascertain the financial commitments various parties are prepared to make;
· Act as the initiator and coordinator for the introduction of ODL in Angola through collaboration with African ODL institutions.

8. The Role of Open and Distance Learning in Angola
Recommendations by NEPAD, the deliberations of UNESCO, and the joint agreement of the Conference of Ministers of Education of the African Union in Algiers (8-11 April 2005) identify ODL as the key mechanism through which Africa can realise the goals set out by Dakar Framework of the World Education Forum in 2000.

Three attempts have been made to introduce ODL in Angola. For reasons that are not known, all these attempts have been unsuccessful.[13] Some Angolan nationals are pursuing studies through ODL at institutions outside Angola. Moreover, the Angolan government is collaborating with the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries in the development of education and other socio-economic spheres. The implications of such co-operation for ODL initiatives driven by NEPAD and the African Union are unknown. What is clear, though, is that ODL has a significant role to play in the training and development of teachers and, concomitantly, national development.

The type of reconstruction and development agenda envisaged by the Angolan government and the Ministry of Education demands the development of teachers as change agents. Consequently, building viable and effective teaching cohorts is vital to achieve improved delivery performance among teachers, improved quality of education, and to ensure that broader social-political objectives are met.

Furthermore, Angola is aiming to develop a teaching force that is more in tune with the realities of its context. This context includes the uneven relationship between Portuguese as official language and various local languages, regional disparities between urban and rural provision, gender inequality, widespread unemployment and under-employment, and the need for economic development in a globally competitive environment.

As a consequence of concrete conditions caused by the war the necessary evolutionary adaptation of the educational process to changing national and international imperatives has been severely inhibited. As is to be expected, the quality of teacher training and teaching is weak. The redevelopment of teacher training and teaching must take place rapidly, across a large geographic region, within stringent budgetary constraints, and in circumstances where communication, infrastructure and access to resources may be problematic.

In the case of Angola, ODL offers one of the few viable options for immediate and intensive implementation in a manner that is economically affordable and educationally sustainable. Indeed, given that the basic requirements of EFA demand not only that the qualifications of existing teachers are upgraded, but that large numbers of new teachers be trained, it is clear that conventional, contact tuition in residential universities and institutions is unrealistic and unattainable. In these circumstances, the strategic and careful implementation of Teacher Training and Development through ODL appears to be the only possible remedy.

The broad processes and objectives of the use of ODL for Teacher Training and Development are sketched below. This preliminary overview is followed by a more detailed proposal pertaining to specific interventions. Finally, further stratgies are considered, along with timeframes, unputs and outputs, and costs.

9. A Broad Strategy for Teacher Training and Development in Angola
9.1 Purpose
The purpose of any intervention is to increase the capacity of national institutions to provide and produce quality teacher training and development programmes for initial and continuous training in order to support national priorities.

In order to accomplish this purpose the following actions are required:
9.1.1 Action One: Policy Formulation
Work with the National Ministryof Education to review policy for initial and continuous teacher development. Such policies should incorporate ODL, e-learning, ICTs and the mass media to support teacher development and to contribute to the achievement of national goals, e.g. EFA, increased numbers of trained teachers in specific subjects and skills, such as languages, mathematics, and science. Policy formulation will also take into consideration the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), the proposed SADC Regional Qualifications Framework, accreditation, quality assurance and certification.

9.1.2 Action Two: Capacity Building
Implement capacity building initiatives to develop skills within institutions in Angola that will deliver teacher training. Work with identified national teacher training institutions (both at the initial and continuous teacher development levels) to build their pedagogical skills, ICT skills, and their capacity to use effectively distance education modes to train teachers. This capacity building work will explore the use of various distance education modes, including a range of media and technology options, in training. This training will result in tangible and sustainable results in terms of qualifications such as certificates, diplomas and degrees at various initial and continuous teacher development levels of teacher education.

9.1.3 Action Three: Monitoring and Evaluation
Develop a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system for Angola to ensure that the implementation of this programme is monitored and at strategic points, evaluated, so as to provide useful comments on the effect and impact of this programme and make recommendations for future action in this area.

9.1.4 Action Four: Mass Implementation
Following the initial intervention, mass implementation of Teacher Training and Development Programmes should be phased in across Angola in terms of regional needs and national budgets.

For the sake of clarity, the four actions may be viewed as comprising a two phased approach. These phases are outlined below.

10. Phase One Of Teacher Training And Development through ODL in Angola
Phase One of the project focuses on building capacity and quality of lead teacher training institutions. This exercise is to be undertaken in collaboration with NEPAD, UNESCO, UNISA, AVU, NOUN and COL. It will necessarily involve extensive discussion and liaison with government and educational authorities in the selected countries.

10.1 Specific Themes for Phase One
Specific themes addressed in this exercise relating to targeted lead teacher training institutions in Angola include the following:
· Developing networks among teachers and between lead teacher institutions;
· Training of heads of teacher training institutions;
· Training of ODL mentors in teacher training institutions;
· Developing language and academic support strategies to facilitate ODL;
· Generating new information on the current situation relating to potential use of ICT in lead institutions in Angola;
· Information sharing and dissemination involving building capacity for lead institutions to establish basic teacher training libraries and improving existing means of distributing knowledge;
· Implanting the Manual of HIV/AIDS Preventative Training for Teacher Educators in lead teacher training institutions and networks in Angola (UNAIDS Report 2003 in UNESCO 2004 c);
· Raising awareness of Gender Equality and Gender Issues in Angola both with reference to Teacher Training and Development and in terms of the general social dynamic;
· Developing and strengthening partnerships between lead teacher training institutions in Angola and other institutions in Africa;
· Training on ODL and capacity relating to pedagogy, library and management issues in lead teacher training institutions

10.2 Terms of Reference for Phase One
The situation analysis exercise in selected African countries suggests that most sub-Saharan countries have vast and dispersed provinces and regions. This is certainly true of Angola.

The situation analysis also shows that the demand for both the quantity and quality of teachers is most felt in the rural and poorest areas. Consequently, it is necessary to devise intervention strategies and advocacy programmes to build the capacity of lead teacher training institutions and to strengthen their impact on the initial and continuous development of teachers so that they have the potential to develop as centres of excellence that will be in a better position to disseminate their strengths to provinces and districts. The long-term goal of Phase One is to ensure the sustainability and self-reliance of lead teacher training institutions in respect of improving the quality of teacher training, curriculum development, assessment, and human resource development.

This means, inter alia, using modern ICTs and ODL as strategies for institutional capacity building. Envisaged models of capacity building and advocacy are intended to empower, to develop and to support teacher educators in lead teacher training institutions by means of:

· Setting up effective working networks and partnerships;
· Training groups of teaching staff;
· Conducting seminars and workshops on capacity building in these institutions;
· Developing language and academic support competencies;
· Providing training in the preparation and editing of training materials;
· Training heads of teacher training institutions;
· Training of ODL learning mentors;
· Providing courses in teaching methods and pedagogy;
· Generating information on the current situation in selected countries;
· Improving communication capacities;
· Contributing to the development of resource centres at lead institutions;
· Providing capacity in lead institutions to spread innovation from the centres to the regions and provinces.

The focus in these capacity-building exercises is on teacher educators in respect of:

· Broadening their subject knowledge;
· Improving their pedagogy;
· Developing linguistic competence;
· Improving their administrative and management skills;
· Introducing them to different modes of delivery;
· Introducing them to the possibilities of ICT, which include radiophone, telephone conference and digital libraries, electronic desktops, nerve centres and electronic libraries for groups of teachers.

11. Phase Two: Mass Implementation of the New Teacher Training And Development Programmes in Angola

Phase Two seeks to build on the feedback from the process of institutional capacity building in lead teacher training institutions outlined in Phase One and to explore processes pertaining to the development and mass implementation of new programmes, curricula, materials and content of teacher development and training in Angola.

11.1 Specific Themes for Phase Two
Phase Two of the project focuses on the consolidation of capacity-building in lead teacher training institutions but goes a step further to develop both the pre-implementation and implementation of large-scale teacher training and development programmes and curricula in partnership with lead teacher training institutions in Angola. As in Phase One of the project, this exercise is envisaged as collaborative.

· Developing networks among teachers and between lead teacher training institutions and in-service teachers;
· Developing and implementing general and subject-specific ODL teacher training and development programmes;
· Training of ODL mentors in teacher training institutions and for regional implementation;
· Developing language and academic support programmes and strategies to facilitate ODL;
· Establishing training networks and infrastructures necessary for the implementation of distance education teacher training programmes;
· Developing the capacity for information sharing and dissemination between building capacity for lead institutions to in-service teachers and improving existing means of distributing knowledge;
· Delivering tuition in collaboration with educational authorities, teacher training institutions and partner organizations;
· Assessing the efficacy of large-scale teacher training and development programmes;
· Constructing appropriate monitoring and evaluation strategies.

11.2 Terms of Reference for Phase Two
Phase Two of the project envisages embarking upon the following on a national scale:

· To consolidate the capacity building exercise of Phase One;
· To evaluate the efficacy of Phase One in order to determine the direction, scope and modes of potential ODL applications, in forms that best complement conventional, school-based teacher education;
· To extend the capacity building exercise of Phase One to a critical mass of participants;
· To develop new teacher education programmes, curricula and materials;
· To develop a marketing strategy;
· To develop a funding strategy and a cost structure for the mass delivery of the programme;
· To examine possible sources of generic curricula for continuous teacher training from abroad, or from the African continent;
· To implement on a mass scale teacher training and development programmes in key areas identified by the Dakar Framework and COMEDAF II;
· To formulate a monitoring and evaluation strategy for the teacher training programme.

12. A Proposal for an Initial Intervention by UNISA
It is clear that the implementation of the two Phases for Teacher Training and Development outlined above will require substantial investment from the Government of Angola and from the international community. It is also clear that at the outset the nature and scope of the proposed intervention may have to be circumscribed in order to accommodate available finances and to ensure that further implementation is grounded in a solid foundation.

Accordingly UNISA, in association with NEPAD, suggests that Phase One of the Teacher Training and Development Strategy be sub-divided into six stages. Moreover, these stages should focus simultaneously on National requirements and the specific needs of one or two pre-identified lead teacher training institutions.

This proposal, then, sets out the stages which are envisaged as comprising a National Intervention in accordance with Phase One, while making specific recommendations for the co-operative and coordinated redevelopment of selected lead teacher training institutions.

12.1 National NQF Articulation and Capacity Building: Activities
12.1.1 Build capacity to develop articulation and harmonisation of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), the NEA and EFA as components of the Teacher Training and Development Plan and Teacher Development Policy;

12.1.2 Train and capacitate 18 provincial directors and 36 school principals in the area of human and financial management, leadership and supervision skills and planning;

12.1.3 Train 18 provincial Directors and 36 managers/school principals in the area of ODL as an alternative mode of delivery to train teachers.

12.2 National NQF, Articulation and Capacity Building: Deliverables
12.2.1 Workshops on the process of developing articulation and harmonization of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) as a component of Teacher Training Development and Teacher Development Policy and Plan including policy statements and frameworks;

12.2.2 Workshops with 18 provincial directors and 36 school principals in the area of human and financial management, leadership and supervision skills and planning;

12.2.3 Workshops with 18 provincial Directors and 36 managers/school principals in the area of ODL as an alternative mode of delivery to train teachers. An inventory of human, financial recourses and equipment required.

12.3 National Accreditation, Planning and Capacity building: Activities
12.3.1 Build capacity around the process of developing accreditation procedures of teacher training institutions and providers in relation to the Teacher Training and Development plan and Policy (policy statements and frames);
12.3.2 Train and build capacity of planners and managers at System level in areas of ODL as an alternative mode of delivery to train teachers and Teacher Development
12.3.3 Train and build capacity of 18 provincial Directors and 36 school principals in areas of management, leadership, supervision, assessment and evaluation.

12.4 National Accreditation, Planning and Capacity Building: Deliverables
12.4.1 Workshops for developing accreditation procedures of teacher training institutions and providers in relation to the Teacher Training and Development Plan and Policy, including policy statements and frameworks;
12.4.2 Workshops on ODL and Teacher Development Policy;
12.4.3 Training and workshop materials to train 18 Provincial Directors and 36 schools principals in areas of management, leadership, supervision, assessment and evaluation;

12.5.4 A short report on needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers at teacher training institutions.

12.5 National Certification Processes and Materials Development: Activities
12.5.1 Build capacity to develop the certification process and RPL as key components of the envisaged Teacher Training and Development Plan. (Databases, policy statements and frameworks);

12.5.2 Train 18 provincial Directors and 36 school principals in the areas of the decentralization of curriculum and materials development;

12.5.3 Capacitating 30 teacher trainers in 4 institutions on ODL curriculum and materials development;

12.5.4 Conducting needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.6 National Certification Processes and Materials Development: Deliverables
12.6.1 Workshop materials used to develop certification process and RPL as key components of the envisaged Teacher Training and Development Plan (policy statements and frameworks and their decentralization;

12.6.2 Training materials for 18 provincial Directors and 36 school principals in the areas of the decentralization of curriculum and materials development;

12.6.3 Training materials for 30 teacher trainers in 4 institutions on ODL curriculum and materials development;

12.6.4 Short report on needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.7 National Harmonisation of NQF, Assessment and Evaluation: Activities
12.7.1 Harmonisation of NQF, accreditation and certification process and certification policy and process as key components of Teacher Education Development Plan (policy statement and frameworks);

12.7.2 Work with the Ministry of Education in order to identify and train 30 trainers of trainers at the Magisterio Primerio on management and supervision in Luanda and Cuando Cubano who will work at both national and provincial levels;

12.7.3 Train 30 trainers of trainers in continuous assessment and evaluation;

12.7.4 Conducting needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.8 National Professionalism: Activities
12.8.1 Train and build capacity in areas of professionalism in teaching, professional bodies and conditions of service as components of Teacher Training and Development Plan and Policy;

12.8.2 Conducting needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.9 National Professionalism: Deliverables
12.9.1 Policy statements in areas of teaching professionalism, conditions of service, recruitment and retention of teachers;

12.9.2 Report on needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.10 National Finalisation and Reporting: Activities
12.10.1 Finalisation and production of documents on NQF, accreditation and certification processes and assessment report;

12.10.2 Conducting needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.11 National Finalisation and Reporting: Deliverables
12.11.1 Report on NQF, accreditation and certification processes and assessment report

12.11.2 Report on needs assessment for using ODL to train teachers in Angola.

12.12 Timeframe
It is suggested that the above activities commence as soon as possible and that their delivery does not extend beyond 2005. These activities must be seen as a pilot implementation prior to a more extensive roll-out.

13. Specific Intervention: Lead Teacher Training Institutions
At the same time as measures are being implemented which have direct implications for National developments, NEPAD and UNISA suggest that an educational institution in Luanda and an educational institution in at least one of the provinces, possibly Cuando Cabango (Kuando Kabango), be targeted as a lead teacher training centres at which a full programme of rehabilitation and reconstruction – both infrastructurally and academically can occur. Depending on the success of this intervention, these institutions can serve as a centre of excellence on which future developments can be based.
A precondition of this intervention is that the selected institutions be equipped to offer ODL to pre-service and in-service teachers.

13.1 Preliminary Factors
Prior to the implementation of tuition, a suitable physical infrastructure should be created. Libraries and laborotories should be re-equipped and a computer centre should be installed. Finally, suitable office, storage tuition accommodation must be identified and made available for the opening of an ODL division.

NEPAD and UNISA recommend that the Government of Angola provides funding for this rehabilitation and that the African Union and the international community be approached to assist. NEPAD may be able to provide advice and guidance in this area.

13.2 Basic Resources
It is also important that the material resources that the selected teacher training institutions are augmented. In this respect, an extension of library holdings, the provision of laboratory equipment, the installation of whiteboards, the supply of overhead projectors, and the preparation of teaching and learning materials are essential. Again, these resources need to be funded by Angola government in association with international donors, the world network of tertiary institutions, international donors and large publishing houses.

13.3 Training of Staff
Two types of academic staff training are envisaged.
The first involves the joint-registration of staff members requiring advanced degrees at both their home institution and at a well-equipped ODL institution such as the UNISA or NOUN in Africa. The priority here would be to provide a supportive and co-operative framework within which existing, under-qualified staff could improve their academic qualifications, while continuing with their lecturing duties. To supplement such a programme, short staff exchanges between Angola and various participating institutions could be arranged. Financial aid to allow staff members to take advantage of this opportunity will need to be investigated. While bursary funding may be scarce, a National Educational Loan Scheme may be viable and may receive support from industry, commerce and foreign governments.

The second form of staff training is premised upon short, intensive training sessions to be conducted in Luanda and in provincial centres. Such training sessions would concentrate on developing advanced language skills, in upgrading and updating subject-specific learning, and at reinforcing methologies and pedagogies appropriate to the global society in which Angola must live. Particular focus areas could be: Institutional Management; Financial Management; Methodology and Practice; Subject Didactics; Key subject areas: Languages, Mathematics, Science, Technology; ODL; Materials Development; ICT and Media in Teacher Training and Development; Assessment and Evaluation; Quality Assurance; Gender Equality and Human Rights; HIV-AIDS Education; Adult Literacy; Vocational Guidance; Strategic Planning; Professional and Personal Development. It goes without saying that the main preoccupation of staff training should be in ODL and should include the planning of curricula, materials development, assessment strategies, administration and student support.

Finally, training in institutional management, administration, record-keeping, financial management and planning, in the technical maintenance of equipment, and in the maintenance of library holdings and laboratories is essential.

13.4 The South African Experience: The National Professional Diploma in Education (NPDE) – An Example of Teacher Development
One of the iniquitous effects of apartheid was to place under-qualified teachers in black school. Often these teachers had only a grade 8 or Grade 12 and had received as little as two years training. Moreover, once in the school system such teachers were poorly paid, inadequately supported, and had few prospects for advancement.

The NPDE is an innovative professional qualification to train and upgrade the large number of unqualified and under-qualified teachers. Rather than being a mere paper qualification, the NPDE is designed to equip teachers with the necessary competencies relating to teaching and learning in schools as regulated by the Norms and Standards for Educators. It covers fundamental learning, subject content teaching, teaching and learning process, professionalism and the new outcomes-based method of teaching and learning that is being introduced in South Africa (UNESCO, 2003: 8).

Having successfully completed a NPDE, teachers are then able to extend their capacity by registering for degrees at universities.

13.5 Further Stages of Development
Once the basic requirements for a stable and dynamic institution have been established, the scope of the training provided to staff should be expanded.

First, newly empowered staff should be included in the collaborative revision of Teacher Training and Development curricula and in the collaborative review of school curricula. In essence they should be trained to act as mentors and guides to the larger numbers of personnel that will necessarily be involved in further implementation. In order to do so, such staff will require specific training in mentorship and in the management of a network of mentors. Furthermore, they will require adequate means in the form of computers and communications networks to be able to convey their expertise to other Teacher Trainers and to teachers undergoing continuous teacher training.

Secondly, personnel from the lead teacher training institutions should, with assistance, form the core of staff competent to provide guidance and training in a growing network of ODL Teacher Training and Development Centres in Angola. Again specialized training will be required for this role, which should be carried out in association with established African ODL institutions.

A logical consequence of this step is the construction and adaptation of further educational institutions in Angola to serve the interests both of full-time and ODL instruction.

13.6 Other Factors
ODL cannot occur in a physical or intellectual vacuum. In order for ODL to be used effectively as a strategy for Teacher Training and Development the following needs deserve attention:

13.6.1 Language and Academic Support
It is recognized that ODL, more than contact tuition, requires fairly high levels of linguistic competence and academic support. Merely speaking a language does not imply that someone can study successfully and efficiently through the medium of that language. Proficiency in Portuguese, the lingua franca, is uneven. English is spoken by a small minority and is only taught for a short period in Secondary school. Indigenous African languages are not yet capable as serving a media of instruction, particularly at tertiary level. Moreover, their multiplicity and regionality and the absence of advanced study material inhibits any possibility of these languages being used extensively, in the near future, within the tertiary sector.

As ODL is introduced, sufficient attention must be granted to enhancing proficiency in Portuguese and English and to providing language and academic support programmes in both languages to facilitate study. Ideally, such intervention should begin at school level. A strong argument can be made for revisiting the syllabuses for both languages in order to bring them up to date with the most recent trends and practices of language teaching.

13.6.2 Communication Networks
ODL relies on an efficient communications network. In a country where communication is difficult and postal services non-existent, technology and the installation of technology at key centres offers the only solution. It is essential that any institution earmarked for rehabilitation and upgrading is equipped with modern ICT equipment, including cellular telephony and satellite receivers. Such equipment will be essential for the distribution of materials, the monitoring of tuition and for communication between learners and their mentors or professors.

Moreover, each ODL centre should be able to receive radio and television broadcasts and be equipped with video and tape recorders. In all stages of Teacher Training and Development it will be important to exploit a variety of media to compensate for any deficiencies in tuition and to supplement the learning process. Moreover, given the extreme needs identified and the numbers of teachers involved the ratio between teacher trainers and teachers-in-training is likely to be high. Reducing this ratio is not possible in terms of the limited availability of qualified personnel. It is also very expensive. ODL aims to produce learners who are self-sufficient to the point where they require limited assistance from trainers.

13.6.3 Mass Development of Learning Materials for Teachers and Schools
Any attempt to achieve Quality Education for All and to improve Teacher Training and Development will require the mass production of new study materials. These materials are required both for Teacher Development and for classroom use. In the short term, such materials may be obtained in limited quantities from donor nations. Some may even be purchased from overseas consortiums. In the longer term, the provision of learning materials through these routes is neither sustainable or desirable.

The capacity of the international community to supply the demands of all the countries in Africa requiring educational assistance is limited. Profit-making organizations are not noted for their altruism. In addition, many materials produced outside of Africa are Eurocentric and inappropriate for the needs of ‘developing’ societies. They are also inscribed with cultural references and contents that may be inimical to the stated objectives of Angola.

The solution to this problem is for the government and the educationalists of Angola to enter into co-operative arrangements with interested bodies and institutions in Africa to develop materials that are pertinent to the precise context in which they are required. If knowledge and material can be developed collectively and produced on a massive scale the unit price per item will be negligible, employment will be provided to other sectors of the economy (printing and publishing) and the end products will be in accordance with the circumstances and vision of the consuming nation.

13.6.4 Adult Basic Education and Training and Vocational Training
Aside from the development of teaching and learning, attention must be granted to the provision of Adult Basic Education and Training and Vocational Training. Poverty is cited as the reason underlying the high drop-out rates at school level. Poverty cannot be addressed, unless the root causes are tackled. Amongst these root causes illiteracy and the absence of vocational training rank highly.

There is no easy solution to these problems. A decentralized Adult Literacy Programme, planned as a pyramid of learning through various centres and sub-centres, has proven effective elsewhere in Africa. School buildings and provincial centres of excellence should be used in this process. Moreover, radio and other media can be employed in reducing rates of illiteracy.

Similarly, ODL has been used to some extent to address the need for vocational training. On its own, though, it is likely to be insufficient. Angola should investigate the adoption of a National Skills Strategy through learnerships or apprenticeships. The adaptability of the Angolan people is remarkable. As one travels across Angola, one encounters cars, machines and innumerable other devices that have been modified or recycled to serve new needs. Such inventiveness and creativity should be brought within a framework where they can be supplemented by focused vocational training and where skills can be certified for the purposes of self-employment or employment within an enterprise.

13.6.5 Health, Sanitation and the Prevention of Disease
Mortality rates in Africa from preventable disease are extremely high. Both Malaria and HIV-AIDS threaten to decimate populations. Poor sanitary conditions and the absence of potable water are prime agents for the spread of disease. These issues must be tackled both within Teacher Training and Development programmes and within programmes to alleviate illiteracy and poverty. Preventative messages and campaigns should be an integral function of the mass media.

13.6.6 Gender
Issues of gender and gender equality are important in education and in society as a whole. Notions of new gender relations should be incorporated into all aspects of formal and non-formal education, including schools and universities, adult literacy, health education and social upliftment strategies. Equal access to education for girls and women is an important component of achieving the goals established by the Dakar framework. In addition, without the active participation of increasing numbers of men and women in the education system, Angola cannot hope to meet the overaching goal of universal primary education for all children by 2015.

14. Factors Influencing Implementation
This proposal from NEPAD and UNISA depends on three factors which cannot be dictated or controlled by the proposing bodies. These factors are:
· The political will and commitment of Angola government;
· The availability of funding;
· And, the willingness of the Congolese people to participate in their future.

15. The Next Steps for the Project to Proceed
15.1 Governmental Commitment
The Government of Angola needs to:
· Consider the proposal and make any modifications that it requires;
· Commit itself to the principles and processes outlined in the proposal or in a modified version thereof;
· Delineate the role it can play in the implementation of the proposal;
· Make finances available from the National budget;
· Solicit additional funding from the international community;
· Indicate the extent to which NEPAD assistance is required;
· Put in place the necessary administrative and political frameworks to facilitate implementation.

15.2 Ministerial Commitment
The Ministeries of Education need to:
· Indicate the extent to which the proposed strategies are desirable and implementable in terms of their overall planning and policy direction;
· Provide a clear indication of sites for implementation and timeframes against which implementation can take place;
· Inaugurate and initiate bi-and multi-lateral consultative forums in which further details can be negotiated;
· Establish channels for communication and cooperation between Educational institutions and contributing partners;
· Put in place the necessary administrative and facilitating frameworks to permit implementation.

15.3 Institutional Commitment
The lead teacher training institution/s identified for the first phase on intervention need to:
· Indicate, in a quantifiable manner, infrastructural needs;
· Indicate, in a quantifiable manner, human resource needs, including academic and administrative;
· Provide a comprehensive audit of its staff and of their level of qualification, including any needs for further training and development;
· Devise internal strategies and priorities for infrastructure and staff development;
· Formally request assistance from NEPAD, UNISA their partners;
· Commit to the co-operative implementation of ODL;
· Make space for ODL to commence;
· Put in place appropriate liaison and communication networks for implementation to proceed.

15.4 Joint Commitments
The Government of Angola, the Ministry of Education and participating Educational institutions, together with NEPAD, UNISA and its partners, will need to:
· Devise Memoranda of Understandings setting out inter alia expectations, commitments, responsibilities, lines of communication, channels of authority and administrative systems;
· Enter into binding agreements defining inter alia the contributions, limitations of responsibility and authority, financial commitments and expectations of the participating bodies and organizations.

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Notes

[1] The implementation of the EFA National Plan of Action is envisaged in three phases: the Emergency Phase (2003-2006), the Stabilisation Phase (2007-2011) and the Development Phase (2012-2015) (Republic of Angola, Ministry of Education 2004:54).
[2] Except for the last Early Childhood year, this falls under the Ministry of Education.
[3] In which all students are included.
[4] In which only students whose age complies with the official school age for their grade are included.
[5] Total numbers of students given for 2003 are: 2 656 928 in basic education, 116 515 in intermediary and 17 366 in higher education (Republica de Angola, Ministério da Educação [2003]).
[6] The most important reason given for children not attending school (both those who never attended and those who dropped out) is poverty (Hodges 2002:27)
[7] There are two private universities in provincial capitals.
[8] The faculty has been rebuilt, 50 students whose studies had been disrupted by the war have now completed their studies, and a depleted staff (20 out of the 35 before the war) is now teaching 435 students (slightly more than before the war).
[9] This programme, initiated by former President Mandela of South Africa, aims at the rapid construction of 1 500 schools, supplied with water and sanitation, in 4 years.
[10] For instance two one-week training courses per year offered by UNICEF. The European Union Commission is planning to fund ADPP (Development Agency for People to People) institutions for the pre-service and continuous training of primary school teachers in two provinces. In some provinces mobile teacher training teams are used.
[11] The exact percentage cannot be confirmed, but it is estimated that 90% of the education budget is allocated to salaries and subsidies.
[12] The need for relevance of material was strongly emphasised by NGOs belonging to Organizações não Governamentais Angolanas (FONGA).
[13] It is likely that the provision of ODL has been hampered by insufficient preparation in creating a firm foundation for its implementation.